Africanized Honey Bees arrived in Boulder City, Nevada, sometime in 1998. Their presence went unnoticed until the occurrence of an accident on September 19th of that same year-a homeowner surprised a colony of about 5,000 bees. Those bees then attacked every living animal and moving thing within a 150-foot radius. I was the first emergency respondent on the scene and, with the aid of an associate, provided assistance to the police and fire departments. Agency personnel and neighborhood residents were threatened by the bees with one man stung several times and one dog died as a result of this incident.

      I had started Africanized Honey Bee (AHB) research in May of 1998, foreseeing that the bees would be arriving soon and begin to colonize. Since then I have conducted observations and interviews for a research project focusing upon the social, political and economic impacts of the AHB in southern Nevada. This article is a discussion of the history and social issues that were identified in the most recent year of research. While assisting the local community with this public-safety problem and sharing up-to-date research on human-bee encounter issues, I have been favorably positioned to conduct participant observation on community adaptations to threats created by the colonization of Africanized Honey Bees. I conduct ethnographic research while serving as a public health and safety specialist with duties encompassing information services, consultation, emergency response, and the removal of swarms and colonies of Africanized Honey Bees. Field data from southern Nevada, literature, and interviews with New World and Old World researchers are being used by myself and others to predict AHB adaptation in the southern latitudes of the temperate zone and forecast the risks and consequences of human-bee encounters. Effective public safety is proactive: inferences must be drawn from what is known combined with predictions of what may happen in any particular set of circumstances.

      I have found this work and research to be a highly engaging and stimulating exercise in applied anthropology, one that encompasses the observation of social response, human/bee interaction, and problem solving to lessen hazards presented by the arrival and colonization of Africanized Honey Bees. Moreover, observations of new methods of managing Africanized bees to allow this subspecies to pollinate crops and produce wax and honey are being investigated. Also, educational public-service announcements to remind residents in colonized zones of proper behavior and response while coexisting with this honey bee are being studied to assess risk management and effectiveness of such programs. Even so, observations made thus far suggest that some people will still apply their folk knowledge about bees, and that may be ineffective or dangerous as one such episode in this article shows. While this presentation is primarily based in southern Nevada, I am consulting with academic and agency personnel in South Africa, Mexico, and with other researchers in the United States. Additionally, within my study area, several hundred residents have offered their opinions about how the bees personally affect them. By gathering international insights about other human experiences while adjusting to and living with this subspecies information can be applied to the concerns of our local residents and reinforce wise responses from government agencies.

       It is a foregone conclusion that the Africanized Honey Bee will successfully and permanently colonize areas of the United States below the 35th parallel and yet due to mild weather from marine influence, may move northward up the Pacific coast as far as British Columbia. The bees will colonize rural and urban areas in accordance with their adaptive limitations to ever-increasing colder conditions in the upper Temperate Zone. They have disrupted two preexisting dynamic equilibria: one social and the other human to bee. Adaptation will require that humans reestablish new equilibria in both of these spheres. The re-establishment process viewed in one nonreciprocating aspect will require humans to adapt to the presence of this new subspecies (the bees will not adapt to us). Therefore, this study has been focused upon ways in which people may conflict socially and politically or, instead, work together to lessen the threatening potential of this new honey bee that will bring benefits and sometimes, tragedy.

      For thousands of years, human beings have been fascinated with honey bees and desirous of the products that bees provide for human nutrition. Paleolithic art featuring bees in Altamira, Spain suggests that early humans gathered honey 11,000 years ago. The developing trend toward sedentary life eventually changed the relationship between humans and honey bees from 'hunting' to 'keeping.' In the Fertile Crescent, sedentary agricultural practices began about 7,000 years ago with the domestication of wild animals, plants and presumably the honey bee. In the Nile Delta, early Egyptians created artwork portraying the practice of apiculture or beekeeping 4,400 years ago. The fashion of keeping bees in Europe progressed from hollow-log hives (about 3,000 years ago) to modern frame hives currently in widespread use today. The 'European Honey Bee' utilized commercially and by hobbyists today evolved from popular selection of bees for gentleness, honey, and wax production. Through centuries of hybridization, four naturally occurring subspecies of honey bees in Europe have been crossed resulting in commercial bee colonies that often, have traits of all four original European subspecies.

      Whereas Egyptian and European beekeepers were able to domesticate the subspecies of honey bees (Apis mellifera) in their respective homelands, the East African Honey Bee (Apis mellifera scutellata) resisted the practice of beekeeping in South Africa. Extreme predation by an array of animal species in southern Africa necessitated the development and display of extreme defensive and protective behaviors. Additionally, this bee had to defensively adapt toward the 'honey hunting' raids of sub-Saharan, native peoples through centuries of coexistence. This honey bee when imported to the Americas and bred with European Honey Bees (EHB) produced offspring now known as the Africanized Honey Bee (AHB).

      Although, East African Honey Bee behavioral characteristics at first appeared to be unmanageable, as an adaptive process, European colonials in southern Africa developed more sophisticated beekeeping methods to work with this bee in modern apiary life. However, this bee still absconds, swarms excessively and is highly aggressive retaining 'ancient' defensive behaviors. Over time, the East African Honey Bee became a sedentary dweller in southern Africa producing record amounts of honey but required labor-intensive care to meet their special needs. The record setting production of honey in southern Africa gained the interest of Warwick Kerr, a geneticist, who developed the Brazilian bee-improvement program in the early 1950's. He transported East African Honey Bee queens from Tanzania and the Transvaal State in South Africa to Brazil.

      Kerr's reasoning for the selection of African bees was based upon their adaptability to tropical climates as well as their superior honey producing ability. He had studied this bee and observed commercial beekeepers in South Africa who were keeping African colonies and setting honey-production records. Kerr was also aware of the precautions that beekeepers must observe with this bee and the necessary management practices that would have to be initiated in Brazil to prevent any mishaps. The original research plan was focused upon crossbreeding African bees with European bees to produce a hybrid with the best qualities of both subspecies. However, with the unplanned escape of the experimental African imports in the Sao Paulo region, the bees spread faster than human awareness regarding the true nature of the dangers that would descend upon urban and rural environments in the Americas.

      Prior to 1957, the commercial bees kept in Brazil were docile European hybrids. Like people in the United States, Brazilians were used to bees with gentle dispositions. The honey bee has been idealized as a cute, industrious little worker creating the metaphor, "busy as a bee." Additionally, the honey bee has been regarded as a symbol of royalty, as a positive role model in mythological stories, and is used in connection with commercial products and advertising worldwide. Historically then, the noble qualities of honey bees are associated in many ways with aspects of human culture. However, with the arrival of the African subspecies, the people of the Americas acquired a new linguistic contrastive pair: 'honey bee' and 'killer bee.' Where in predominantly Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas, they are known as Abejas Africanizadas and Abejas Asisinas.

      The importance of the new contrastive pair became apparent to several residents of a Boulder City, Nevada trailer park over the last four months from April to July of 1999. Since April, the residents attempted several measures to dissuade a colony of Africanized Honey Bees from nesting in a large tree-trunk hollow. First, they tried lobbing water balloons down the top opening of the hollow--the bees were not impressed. Then, they tried a whole can of wasp and hornet bomb--the bees merely moved out for three days and returned. Then, in what the author refers to as "The Great, Boulder City, Fourth-of-July, Firecracker, Killer-Bee Caper," the closest resident decided to drop firecrackers down the top of the hollow near midnight on the Fourth of July. This resident had invited friends over to attend holiday festivities with a novel grand finale: the removal of unwanted honey bee occupants. The dweller at this location told the author that he and his guests devised a strategy to scare the bees away and then waited well into dark to attempt the removal. After an M-80 military firecracker was discharged in the tree-hollow, the trunk began "humming" with the sounds of thousands of agitated bees. Then after dropping a pack of 100 flashlight firecrackers down the hollow, the bees came out in the dark, identified their target silhouettes, and 'got even' with the party revelers by stinging four of them. One might say that the bees had their own "July Fourth" party as well. The four 'victims' were not seriously injured but rather, frightened into a new level of respect for the Africanized Honey Bee. Because the bees had been molested so many times when my services were requested some days later, the bees were very defensive and hostile. During the removal procedures after sundown, the bees came out in mass and the tree canopy was humming with thousands of hostile bees. I had to summon my associate for additional assistance. During this episode, we came very close to calling the local fire department for further assistance using their large volume, foam generating spray equipment. Fortunately, the author and associate were able to subdue the bees without the fire department's help. Consequentially, the residents of this trailer park discovered that Africanized Honey Bees are capable of launching a counter attack in darkness when encouraged to do so. This behavior is surprisingly different from that of more docile varieties and from encounters such as this one, reinforces the contrastive pair: honey bee/killer bee.

      The blended metaphor 'killer bee' is disdained by academic and agency authorities, cited as a term which may cause greater fear and negative public response to the beekeeping industry and generally to all species of bees. There have been other cultural metaphors used to describe the bees when in full defensive posture: 'going berserk," and 'running amok.' 'Killer bee' is viewed as unnecessary anthropocentric prejudice toward another animal species. During the episode in Boulder City where people were stung and one dog fatally attacked, curious neighbors approached rescue operations too close for their own safety. The author attempted to warn the onlookers by stating that, "Africanized Honey Bees are present" and this evoked stares of confusion. Then, an animal control officer announced, "There are killer bees present!" and this statement received full attention and response from the onlookers who retreated to their homes post haste. In the most pragmatic sense of warning, humans need to know when honey bee behavior has reached a critical level so that a retreat can be effected. As a metaphor, 'killer bee' seems to effectively communicate the threat of extreme honey bee defensive behavior. Yet, when the bees are peacefully going about their own business, they retain their rightful name: ' honey bee.'

The social and economic impact of this bee on both urban and agricultural environments has many dilemmas. First of all, honey bees are crucial to agricultural production that indirectly affects urban residents as consumers of agricultural products. Apparently, the agribusiness argument is that honey bees are ecologically and economically necessary for agriculture; likewise, environmentalists see honey bees as essential for native flora. Basically, the urban population is being urged to accept the hazards of Africanized Honey Bees because they are crucial to food production and ecological survival. Following this position, the public must then accept the risks of feral colonization in urban zones. Herein lies the problem that is no longer economical but rather, political: urban dwellers are not going to accept the risks of AHB stinging incidents in residential neighborhoods. After forty years of spectacular news about 'killer bees' publicizing, the urban population has already formed some fearful conceptions about the potential dangers of the Africanized Honey Bee. Hence, the need to keep bees with potential risks to urban dwellers conflicts with the public need to reduce the anxiety of a serious health and safety threat.

      Comments that appear conciliatory to this threat have been offered as a means of moderating fearful urban-dweller reaction to the AHB. In the Southwest, considerations of AHB threats will merely be added to an existing list of precautionary behaviors to avoid accidents and injury from rattlesnakes, scorpions, spiders, wasps, and ants. Additionally, I have gathered a similar view from researchers in South Africa: in comparison to the dangers of cobras, boomslangs, and black mambas, the East African Honey Bee is considered low on their list of natural environmental hazards. Because residents of the Western Hemisphere have not been enculturated with the AHB as a native species, the absence of awareness about proper human behavior when encountering this subspecies is, in itself, hazardous. The bees are rapidly colonizing southern Nevada, and we must learn to live with them through educational processes and daily awareness of honey bee presence in urban and recreation lands. Although, this does not mean that the urban public will readily accept statements of moderated appeasement from agribusiness, environmentalists or government agencies. In the end, it will not be professionally-kept bee colonies nor the needs of agribusiness that will be viewed as a threat but rather the tremendous ability of the Africanized Honey Bee to swiftly inhabit an urban zone thereby creating a larger risk factor for accidental human-bee encounters.

      In Venezuela, 350 people were killed by Africanized honey bees between the years of 1975 and 1988, with one hundred of those deaths occurring in 1975. By 1985, public awareness of the danger together with careful management of hives reduced deaths to twenty per year. Colonization densities in Central and South America range from six colonies per square kilometer to 108 colonies per square kilometer, equivalent to a range of fourteen to 243 colonies per square mile. With abundant nectar sources, nesting sites, and water in southern Nevada, it is possible that we will see densities of ten to fifty feral colonies per square mile. Although one survey in the Transvaal, South Africa, with fluctuating arid conditions comparable to southern Nevada, yielded only two colonies per square kilometer or about five colonies per square mile. Therefore, in southern Nevada recreational lands, the Transvaal estimate may have some generalizability. In the urban zones of southern Nevada where prime nesting locations, water and nectar exist continuously throughout the year, the higher estimation of fifty colonies per square mile will most likely be valid. The AHB colony has a swarming event three to four times a year and from each swarming event, two to three new groups (or individual swarms) of bees will leave the original colony. That means one colony will produce from six to twelve new colonies each year. In comparison to the two swarms per year of the European Honey Bee, it is evident that the AHB can colonize an area rapidly while replacing any other subspecies of Apis mellifera within that locality.

      For the most part, the public in southern Nevada is still unaware of the magnitude of the threat analogous to Venezuela in 1975. This posture is not due to the lack of effort to inform by the news media, academic, and government agencies, but rather to the public's lack of experience with the AHB and, again, just like the public's state of awareness prior to bee colonization early on in Venezuela where an initial high incidence of stinging deaths occurred.

      Africanized Honey Bees are now in the process of colonizing the southern United States below the 35th parallel and from this point, will make seasonal and fluctuating summer incursions another 200 miles to the north. They will also migrate up the Pacific coast where the marine climate is mild all year long. This bee cannot over-winter in severely cold climates because it does not have the behavioral adaptation of storing large amounts of honey for winter food. In regard to the severe summer temperatures and arid conditions in southern Nevada, H. Randall Hepburn of Rhodes University in South Africa informed the author that the East African Honey Bee excels competitively when similar arid and hot conditions prevail in the Transvaal region. In one year of observation, I have found that this bee has adapted to southern Nevada desert conditions quite effectively.

      Commercial hives of AHB will require posted notification to alert people to their presence. Beekeepers who choose to work with the AHB will gain larger yields of honey but will have to inspect their hives frequently to gauge bee 'happiness' with their surroundings. If the bees perceive threats in the area, or if the floral-nectar sources become low, the AHB will pack up and leave. This is just one of this honey bee's successful behaviors: to the bewilderment of beekeepers desirous of working with AHB culture, the bees will move the entire colony in search of a better home. In quarantine zones, to maintain certified European colonies, requeening is mandatory and this involves the removal of the original queen from a hive and introducing a certified European queen supplied by a commercial apiary producer. By doing so, a beekeeper can prevent the complete takeover of gentle European honey bee hives by the AHB. Because the AHB is so prolific and will be present in great numbers in a colonized area, commercial European Honey Bee colonies can be viewed as a small gene pool surrounded by an immense gene pool of feral Africanized colonies. Therefore, the beekeeper's adaptation to the AHB threat is vigilance and frequent maintenance or 'working' of their European Honey Bee commercial hives. Although, researchers have discovered that when many competing African drones are present in one area, a new European virgin queen introduced into a commercial hive may end up mating with an AHB drone rather than a European drone. Also, European queens mated to AHB drones produce highly defensive progeny, thereby suggesting that aggressive tendencies are carried by the AHB male or drone. Obviously, in view of these circumstances, requeening will not always be effective in maintaining a more docile European gene pool in the commercial hive.

      As a forecast, Roger A. Morse (Bees and Beekeeping. Ithica, New York: Cornell University Press. [p. 175].1975) made this statement, "There is little justification for the concern that the Africanized bees will spread northward and into the United States." He based that prediction on his past research that uncovered reports of early importation of African bees to North America in the late 1890's, those bees did not successfully adapt nor did the African bee adapt in Poland. As a result of those importations, he also believed that African genes were subsequently introduced into colonies of bees in North America and Europe. Hence, the Africanization of bees in the United States and Europe already occurred with aggressive behavior presumably 'tamed down' by hybridization. He is correct in that tropical bees do not adapt to northern temperate weather however, what Morse did not foresee was the fact that Apis mellifera scutellata hybrids are very adaptable to southern temperate-zone conditions. Further, after hybridization with European varieties, the feral AHB colony gene pool reverts back to the genotype found in South Africa, commonly known as the East African Honey Bee. Although, officially in the Western Hemisphere it is known as neotropical scutellata to reflect genetic adaptation with New World environments.

      In view of future human-bee encounters in North America, the need for greater public awareness becomes urgent to avert tragic episodes. Like Venezuela, communities in the lower United States may initially report a higher incidence of accidents at the onset of AHB colonization and yet, will diminish as the residents become more aware of the dangers. Historically, two troublesome myths have been disbursed as to AHB colonization of a new territory: that the bees will mate with a lesser aggressive strain and become more docile and/or, the bees are just passing through. The myths confuse people and lessen the awareness needed to properly respond to a threat or emergency. Logan Jenkins (San Diego Union-Tribune . April 2nd, 1999) reported an interview with an entomologist who offered this opinion: "In the long run, if we leave the European bees alone, they can mate with the Africanized bees, dilute the genes down to the point where they're not such an aggressive bee." The author has found as in the case of the above publicized comment, that the public becomes confused regarding official interpretations of honey bee behavior and population dynamics. During the early stages of AHB colonization, the proliferation of such myths may very well be responsible for a higher human-bee accident rate. What is clear to the author is that a reliable set or range of AHB behaviors (and generally agreed upon by most 'experts') must be constructed so that we know what to expect as this subspecies colonizes southern Nevada. This way, we are not subject to misinformation or wavering opinion and can take the necessary precautions to avoid injury. Some communities in the Southwest have promulgated sound policy for emergency response and public education. On the other hand, there are many communities that have not yet developed policies to deal with feral colonies and monitor hobbyists and the commercial keeping of bees close to urban zones. Land ownership with the responsibilities thereof is a long-standing cultural dimension of some importance in the United States. Should attorneys become involved in the recovery of damages due to AHB attacks emanating from either private or publicly held lands, policy will have to be established on who may be held responsible.

      The Africanized Honey Bee will become the dominant subspecies below the 35th parallel and humans will have to coexist with them as they with us. As humans move from a position of abhorrence to one of tolerance and become accustomed to their presence, Africanized Honey Bees may eventually be viewed as saviors of Western Hemisphere agriculture and native flora thereby honoring the original intentions of Warwick Kerr. In the past, European Honey Bees have suffered extinction pressures in the Western Hemisphere due to parasites and diseases to which Africanized Honey Bees are resistant. Hence, they will be able to fill a much required ecological niche that has been vacated by European hybrids in the natural environment unassisted by human beings that is, in the wild or feral state.

      The Africanized Honey Bees are diligent and egalitarian in their pursuit of what they perceive as threats to their colony and well being. From the anonymous to the well-known, no one is immune from an unexpected attack. Returning focus to Africa from whence came the original honey bee breeding stock, we find a report of a regrettable incident involving the President of South Africa:
Associated Press, 4/12/98, Johannesburg, South Africa --- HONEY BEES ATTACK NELSON MANDELA --- Hostile honey bees attacked Nelson Mandela in the bathroom, repeatedly stinging the South African president. Mandela, 79, said the bees were buzzing outside his vacation home Saturday in Qunu, in the former Transkei tribal homeland, and then some flew inside and attacked, The Sunday Independent reported. Mandela said he was stung "four or five times" on the abdomen and "also in parts that I can't mention", the newspaper reported. The onetime boxer's combative inclinations got the better of him. When he heard the heavy buzzing, Mandela said, he knew it would be better to stand still, but he feared getting stung and quickly reached for some bug spray. "Then they launched a counterattack," he said. "I had to flee."
The residents of southern Nevada would be well advised to learn from Mandela's misadventure.

      In the urban environment, no longer will people be able to observe or pass by working honey bees without some concern for their safety. To a knowledgeable person, the presence of working or foraging bees is not serious because this animal's behavior can be predicted while they are gathering pollen and nectar. In terms of cultural ecology and adaptation, urban dwellers will need to bee-proof their buildings at added expense or risk extensive structural damage. Should colonization by bees in walls or ceilings go unchecked, plaster board and other materials will fail and disintegrate under the weight of the combined comb and honey. This will necessitate repair bills that may approach thousands of dollars. Also, bee-proofing urban structures will reduce the risk of accidental encounter and attack from colonizing bees in defense of their hive location. Since their arrival in Texas in 1990 and subsequent colonization into other western States, seven human deaths have occurred from stinging incidents. Although regrettable, in comparison to Venezuela's first year of colonization and resulting deaths, the low incidence of fatal defensive attacks thus far in the United States is impressive.

      While adaptive processes are occurring in the urban environment between humans and bees, the agricultural environment must respond to more serious concerns. Approximately 50 percent of crops produced in the United States require pollination by bees. Many different native species of bees may join in the task of pollination. However, for dependable and thorough pollination to occur, commercial pollinating services are often requested. Africanized Honey Bees do not adapt to transportation and hence, cannot be used in mobile pollinating services. One approach to solving this problem may be the provision of nesting sites on farm lands that would allow the Africanized Honey Bee temporary or permanent homes close to orchard and field crops. This solution would then invite the bees to nest close to plants and trees that require pollination, a choice made ultimately by the bees rather than by humans. This method of pollinating by providing desirable nesting sites may also create hazards to personnel attending to crops. Although, one indirect benefit may be that 'crop thieves' will pass over orchards and fields where warnings are posted of the presence of Africanized Honey Bees.

      This subspecies of bee is not easy to work with and apiary industries in Mexico, Central and South America have suffered from beekeepers leaving the practice due to liability risks from the dangers posed to residents, livestock, pets and other wildlife. One solution in Mexico has been requeening to maintain honey bee hives at 25 percent Africanized or lower within the gene pool. At this level of Africanization, the bees remain workable and less threatening. As beekeepers adapt to Africanization in the United States, some may choose to work with fully Africanized bees which will produce three times more honey than European hybrids. As a personal choice, this decision will strictly depend on what the beekeeper is willing to risk and endure in terms of an increased time and labor investment required for this subspecies.

      Both commercial pollinating services and queen-rearing businesses are threatened by 'contamination' of their honey bee gene pools. Mobile pollinating services require honey bee varieties that are capable of being transported hundreds of miles. Africanized gene contamination of European hybrids in mobile pollinator stock will lessen or weaken the hive's ability to over-winter. Many commercial pollinators house their colonies in the northern United States within climate controlled barns where the bees are also supplementarily fed during the winter. Africanized Honey Bee colonization of the States below the 35th parallel poses a crossbreeding and hence, contamination threat to those mobile pollinating services. Also, contamination of queen-rearing stock could literally destroy those businesses that provide certified European hybrid queens to pollinating services, commercial and hobbyist beekeepers.

      Together, urban and agricultural residents face economic impacts created while adapting to the colonization of Africanized Honey Bees. Reaction to public-safety concerns and the economic impacts created by increasing colonization has produced policy that varies from local attempts to accommodate the bees to ones that try to ban the bees altogether. This bee subspecies will be with us permanently and cannot be deterred through legislation. Policy will eventually move toward ways in which people can use and coexist with this bee subspecies. Otherwise, all feral or wild honey bees will be purely African while commercially kept bees will be European with a continuous breeding effort to maintain European characteristics of docility and tolerance of upper temperate zone winters. This approach will be costly and will reflect upon prices at the grocery store and the cost of many other agricultural products.

      Putting policy aside, without the long-standing help from honey bees, people would then bid farewell to bountiful quantities of fruits and vegetables relied upon for centuries. Although, for the time being, it will remain a transitional social process and discovery as to which subspecies of bee will eventually be responsible for food production. In the end, the quality of life for humans would be in jeopardy without their presence and assistance in a relationship historically and contemporarily prized by human cultures worldwide.

Acknowledgments:   My appreciation for their tireless efforts: Professors George Urioste, Gary Palmer, John Swetnam and William Jankowiak of the Anthropology Department at UNLV, and Kenneth Hobbs (Professor Emeritus), Forensic Biologist, of California State Polytechnic University.

Daniel LeBas first studied and practiced agricultural and urban biology upon graduation from California State Polytechnic University in 1974. He has experience with Federal, State, County and City agency programs involving environmental issues and human populations (as well as in private practice). He is currently pursuing graduate studies in anthropology at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He may be reached at: 890 Del Sol Drive #15 Boulder City, Nevada 89005, and at: Ph. (702) 293-1731, or by e-mail at: bas@nevada.edu.

From PRACTICING ANTHROPOLOGY Vol. 22, No. 2, Spring 2000.